Physiology Of Human Bones And Joints Biology Essay

Physiology Of Human castanets And Joints Biology Essay This includes on the whole the physical and chemical processes that go on inside(a) living things and that ar necessary for proper processing of the carcass. Physiology is closely related to anatomy, the claim of contrary electronic h buildoniums in a personify and their relative positioning. This is because an understanding of functions of remains parts requires a prior understanding of how the dead body is built. Human physiology is the special(prenominal) excogitate of the workings of the gentleman body. The organ ashes approach is usu eachy employed to study human physiology, including that of the b one up and voices. organ systems be a group of cells, tissues, and organs with a particular function.Organ formsThe human body consists of the following organ systems2Musculoskeletal System This system consists of hit the books of the outline, give voices, muscle-builders, connectedness tissue, ligamen ts, t stopon, and gristle. The musculoskeletal system provides a framework for the body, protects many critical organs, and facilitates movements of personal chattel body parts.Nervous System This system is there for transmission of signals mingled with contrastive parts of the body for coordination of body movement. The noi closely system comprises the brain, spinal anesthesia cord, sensory cells c every last(predicate)ed neurons or nerve cells, and nerves that connect these sensory cells.cardiovascular System This system includes heart, blood, and blood vessels. It supplies nutrients to completely parts of the body through with(predicate) and through blood. The system works in close conjunction with the respiratory system.respiratory System This system consists of the lungs, air offerages, and respiratory muscles. It ar locates for oxygenation of blood and release of carbon paper dioxide from blood.Endocrine System This system is make up of legion(predicate) g attains, alone(prenominal) secreting some hormone. These hormones atomic figure of speech 18 released directly into the bloodstream for regulation of the bodys metabolism. This organ system includes glands such as the pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pineal gland, pancreas, and thymus. The pancreas is in any case a part of the digestive system and functions as an endocrine as swell up as exocrine gland.Digestive System This system absorbs nutrients from consumed regimen and disposes waste. It consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, sm either intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas, which secrete digestive juices, argon to a fault part of this system. This system works in active collaboration with the nervous system and the cardiovascular system.Urinary System This system produces, stores, and disposes urine. It is made up of two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder, and a urethra.Reproductive System The productive system is involved with the production of reproductive cells. It also provides a weapon through which these cells atomic number 18 combined. This system consists of external genitalia as well as organs that produce the reproductive cells.Immune System The immune system protects the body against malady. It includes dress up marrow, white blood cells, lymph system, antibodies, spleen, and thymus.Integumentary System This system safeguards the body from damage and comprises of the skin and appendages of the skin such as nails and hair.The study of human physiology includes an exhaustive focus on all these systems. This study has to be combined with a wakeless understanding of the molecular, cellular, and tissue level principles that form the basis of the functions of these systems. Proper functioning of the human body requires all these systems to work smoothly. The overall health of the human body is determined by the efficiency of the collective or integrated working of all these systems. An great c oncept in physiology is homeostasis. This refers to the main hug drugance of real physiological parameters within a narrow range despite frequent changes in the external environment. such a control is essential for proper functioning of all the organ systems. The physiological parameters that take up to be kept within limits include body temperature and concentration of electrolytes and glucose in the cells.Physiology ExplainedOrigins of the Term PhysioThe term physio is derived from the Greek vocalize phusis, pith nature, and was used by pot of ancient Greece just about 1000 B.C. The word phusis is also said to refer to the Greek goddesses of nature who maintained the parallelism of nature. The term also implied normality as opposed to something that is monstrous or perverse.3DifferencesConsiderable physiological goings exist amongst military man, opposite animals, and microorganisms. These differences freighter comm altogether be ascribed to the process of evolution. Darwins theory of evolution proposes that all life on earth started from a single-celled organism that slowly diversified into numerous species. In hallow to adapt to the surroundings, the physiology of organisms changed slowly. Different climatic conditions triggered different caseful of changes and, over the centuries, led to the suppuration of varied life forms. Humans shake an average brain-to-body mass ratio of 140 that is exceeded only by small birds (112). This extremely developed brain is said to be the causal agency why humans ar more(prenominal) intelligent than other animals. much(prenominal) a brain is also the modestness why humans name a longer memory than most other animals. Usually, animals beyond the human species live in the moment and be, therefore, free from emotions such as spite, guilt, and self-consciousness.Fingers and Legs The quarter round is most developed in people. During evolution, Man felt greater need for the turn over and hence it deve loped better than in other species. The thumb adds a whole new dimension to the activities that humans base perform. stack could make and use tools and advance scientifically because of the thumb. While a wondrously developed brain provides the arthritis patient with ideas, the thumb helps in the conversion of some of these ideas into practice. Humans walk on two hind legs era most other animals walk on all four legs.4Certain types of monkeys do walk on two legs, but that is not their normal humour of mobility. This have got provides the arthritis victim with an erect posture and frees their hands for other, more master(prenominal) activities. This is also the reason why humans meet a cartroad speed lower than most other animals of a comparable size.Cardiovascular, Communication, and ignorant Differences The number of chambers in the heart vary among animals. Humans pay four chambers, reptiles usually triad (except crocodiles that have four chambers), fishes have two, an d so on. Moreover, communication skills ar very highly developed in humans as comp ard to other animals. Man is the only animal overt of contrive and coherent speech as opposed to certain sounds and gestures made by animals that basin convey their emotions only in a broad sense. As comp ared to many other animals, humans have an inferior sense of smell, warmnesssight, and hearing. During the tune of evolution, humans made steady progress and started to tailor their environment to their needs. In a partly customized environment, the necessity of these senses declined as compared to when humans lived in collapse and, often, unprotected environments.Micro biologic Differences Humans and animals have numerous organs that are a collection of many cells and tissues. Each organ has some function(s). This specialization is either absent or limited in microorganisms as the number of cells is limited. Organ systems such as musculoskeletal system, nervous system, and cardiovascular syst em are usually absent in the bodies of microorganisms. Many microorganisms are capable of speedy reproduction when the temperatures are moderately high. This rate is very high as compared to humans and most other animals, and the reproduction activity slows down in cold environments. Microbes such as bacteria can freely permutation genes with other similar species leading to quick mutation and evolution. This process of swimming gene transfer poses great challenges for medical science as the physique species can resist even targeted medication. Reproduction in microbes can be asexual, sexual or both.5Fungi reproduce asexually season bacteria can reproduce in both ways. Barring a hardly a(prenominal) exceptions, most animals reproduce sexually. It is the sexual reproduction in bacteria that can lead to mutation and associated problems for medical science. This process is called conjugation and involves transfer of desoxyribonucleic acid from one bacterium to another via a thread type grammatical construction known as pilus. Such a transfer enables the bacteria to pass characteristics and leads to the formation of a varied species capable of survival in newer, more hostile environments.Normal Functions of study and JointsPurpose of operating systemsAll the attire and joints in the body form the skeletal system that is inherently joined with muscles to form the musculoskeletal organ system. The skeletal system serves three fundamental functions.6As noted from chapter three, the skeletal system supports all the other organ systems of the body by providing a framework of mug up and joints on and inside which other organ systems are rested. This structure also provides shape to the body. Bones provide protection from internal organs such as brain, lungs, uterus and others. This is a notable function and, therefore, merits a somewhat detailed intercessionThe skull encases the brain and protects the eyes and the middle and inner ears.The sternum, rib cag e, and spine sort the heart, lungs, and large blood vessels.The vertebral column forms a covering around the spinal cord.The spine and ilium safeguards the hip and the digestive and urogenital systems. causa Movement is provided by bones in combination with attached muscles. cadaverous muscles operate in pairs and when one relaxes, the other simply contracts. An compositors case is the bicep-triceps combination. When the arm is stretched, the bicep relaxes with contraction of the triceps and vice versa. Many times, bones provide leverage by amplifying the magnitude and changing the direction of force generated by the muscles.Impaired Bone HealthOver stack of ConsequencesUnhealthy bones are unable to perform all or any of their functions of support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, and acting as a reservoir and dumping locations respectively for useful and toxic minerals. Bone disease is a generic term for disorders related to bones that make bones fainthearted an d brittle and, therefore, more likely to break. Sources for bone disorders include heredity, nutritionary deficiencies, injuries, and transmittances. The general effects are a pronounced decrease in the quality of life collect to the inability to move efficiently and cod to frequent bone injuries and possibly fractures. Premature death can pass in extreme cases.Infectious Arthritis This can event in people with weak joints. The source is a fungal, viral, or bacterial infection in such joints and the symptoms include hunk and redness around the joint, joint pain, and fever. The infection is transferred through blood or can be a result of injury, surgery, or injection. Infectious arthritis is discussed further in chapter 19.Rickets This is found in children and is due to vitamin D deficiency. It makes the bones weak and soft. The effects include qualified movements with bone and muscle pain.Low bone density is due to inferior development of bone mass during childhood. This ca n aggravate into osteoporosis later on in life.7Bone Cancer This acts the normal functioning of bone cells and tissues. Usually, pubic louse in the bone is a result of spread of cancerous cells to bones from another part of the body. Very rarely does bone cancer rear in bone cells. There are different types of bone cancers that affect bone cells, cartilage cells, and the bone marrow. Symptoms include swelling, pain, and weak bones fatigue, unexplained weight loss, night sweats, and chills. This disorder can assume serious proportions if it affects a load-bearing bone such as the femur, forcing the patient to use a wheelchair for considerable duration of the treatment.Pagets Disease This bone disease interrupts the cycle of never-ending breakdown and rebuilding of bones. Severe pain and swelling in joints are the symptoms of this disorder that can enlarge and weaken the bones. This can intensify into other disorders such as deafness and arthritis.Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI) This is a genetic disease that causes bones to break easily and other conditions such as curved spine, weak muscles, brittle teeth, and hearing loss. The disease causing gene is inherited and affects the development of collagen a protein that in turn affects bone development.Fibrous Dysplasia This results in electrical switch of bones with fibrous tissue, thereby causing excessive growth and swelling of bones. Weak bones affect the ability to walk and the disorder can also cause endocrine problems. The reason this disorder inspires a certain degree of awe is because the cause is unknown, it cannot be prevented, and cure only aims to reduce the adverse effects.Osgood-Schlatter Disease This malady affects the area where the knee cap and shin bone (shinbone) are connected. The disease is more likely to affect adolescents and causes swelling, tenderness, and pain in the affected area. The pain can range from mild to severe and from chance(a) to constant.Physiology of JointsPurpose of J ointsJoints are those locations where two or more bones are attached. Joints provide connectivity between different bones of the body. The fact that almost all bones are connected to form the skeletal system and that the muscles are connected to the skeleton ensures coordination of movement between different parts of the body. This connectivity integrates all the body parts into one whole entity. Joints facilitate movement through contraction and relaxation of muscles. Purposeful movement is fundamental to animal carriage and enables them to execute all activities necessary for survival, leisure, and reproduction. A certain amount of tractableness is lent to the skeletal structure by joints, which also serve as shock absorbers. Evolution has lent different structure to different types of joints in different animals. However, their essential functions remain unchanged. An standard is the joints in the hind legs of land based carnivores that are designed for pouncing on prey. This is why they can bug out high by using their hind legs. At the other end of the spectrum are the herbivores with bones and joints of hind legs designed for high speed. The joints of monkeys are designed for quick climbing and rapid movement among trees. Reptile joints enable them to quail and pounce at high speeds.All members of the cat family except the cheetah have retractable claws. The claws are made so as they are joined to the last phalange that can move forward or returning(prenominal) along a curvilinear path. This mechanism prevents unnecessary wearing of claws. The claws are voluntarily unsheathed only during search and serious fighting. The cheetah is designed for high speed and requires the claws to be continuously unsheathed in order to gain and maintain traction magical spell sprinting. Even among carnivores, joints serve fairly different functions. Members of the dog family have joints compatible for a prolonged chase. Their hunting strategy involves wearing down the prey. Cats are ambush hunters. Their joints are stronger and capable of sudden acceleration for bringing down the prey suddenly. This would also hateful greater shock absorbing capacity of their joints, although they are not worthy for endurance. In humans, all joints can provide movement except the bones of the cranium. These cover the brain and are not capable of movement for perspicuous reasons. The human palm has a peculiar structure where the thumb provides stupendous gripping ability. Such a structure is absent in all the other animals and bestows humans with the capacity to execute a whole range of specialized activities. Joints in the human body can be sort on the basis of type of movement that they provide physiologically waxy joint joints facilitate movement similar to that of a hinged door along one axis only. They allow up-or-down movement but not from side to side. Examples of such joints are the elbow, knee, and the upper and lower jaw.Ball and socket joint s allow movement in all directions upwards, downwards, and sideways. The shoulder is an usage of such a joint. Another example is the acetabulam or the hip joint where the thigh bone is connected to the pelvis. thole joints permit pivotal movement of one part about the other. An example of this type of joint is the movement of the skull about the backbone where the skull can exclude about the topmost bone of the backbone.Gliding Joint is characterized by coast movement of one bone / part over the other. The wrist joint is an example of such a joint.Joints can also be classified advertisement according to the mechanism that holds the bones together at the joint. Application of this step renders the following types of joints.8Fibrous or immovable joints are held together by ligaments only. Examples of such joints are the radioulnar and tibiofibular joints, the joints of bones inside the forearm and shin, respectively. Cartilaginous joints are where the connection between bones i s provided by cartilage. An example is the joints between the vertebrae. synovial joints are held together by a synovial capsule that is made from the protein collagen. The inner layer of this capsule is known as the synovial membrane and it secretes a lubricant called synovial fluid. Furthermore, there is a hyaline cartilage that pads the ends of the bones in these joints. Synovial joints can be hinge joints, bollock and socket joints, pivot joints, or gliding joints. They can also be level type or condyloid type. Different palpate bones of the same finger are joined by a saddle joint while condyloid joints join the metacarpal bones to the low phalanges.Developmental Aspects of Male and fe male person Bones overall Bone SimilaritiesWhen it comes to bones and joints, considerable similarities exist between the framework of males and egg-producing(prenominal)s. As a matter of fact, the skeletons of all primates face certain generic features such as a large brain, highly devel oped fingers and thumb, generalized pattern of teeth, forward facing eyes, and bony eye sockets. The following points of resemblance are observed between the human male and human female skeleton.Both have exactly the same number of bones 206. Same number of bones also means the same number of joints, although the precise number of joints in the human body is a matter of debate in view of differences in opinion on what constitutes a joint. An inclusive estimate indicates to the strawman of about 250 to 350 joints in the human body. The shape of most bones in the male and female skeleton is similar, although some bones are differently shaped in view of the different roles of males and females. The femur or the thigh bone is the longest and strongest bone in both human males and human females. Stirrup or stirrup is the smallest bone in the human skeleton irrespective of gender. This bone is placed in the middle ear and its average size ranges between 0.25 cm to 0.33 cm. The average human bone density is around 1500 kg/m3 for a normal, healthy adult, although males have slightly higher bone density than women. here again, different researchers have obtained varying results ranging between 1000 kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3. With this, the human skeleton comprises a significant percent of the total body weight.Exceptions Certain peculiarities or exceptions are common to the male and female skeletons. The presence of fused bones in the cranium and pelvis serves as an example here. These bones are not connected through joints but pass into each other the way pieces of a jigsaw puzzle do. The three bones in the middle ear, collectively referred to as ossicles, connect only with each other. The hyoid bone primed(p) in the neck serves as a connection point for the tongue. It is not connected to any bone in the skeleton. It is held in position only by muscles and ligaments.Overall Bone DifferencesDifferent hormones affect the development of bones in males and females and thi s is the primary reason for bone differences. Testosterone is the main hormone that affects bone development in males while estrogen does the same for females.9The differences between male and female skeletons can be better understood when seen in the context of differences in race, lifestyle, and physical activity. When comparisons are made between males and females of the same race and with comparable lifestyles, the following points of differences can be observed.In Relation to Childbirth There are two differences in relation to the process of childbirth covered in the precedingchapter. Females have a more movable coccyx or tailbone and a wider and praise sacrum connected to the pelvis. The coccyx is the last bone of the backbone and sacrum is similarly located near the end of the spinal column. Such a structure allows the thinker and shoulders of the fetus to pass through the cavity during childbirth. Bones that make up the arms and legs are thicker, longer and, therefore, str onger in case of males. Bones in the arm include the humerus that supports the bicep, radius, and the ulna that support the forearm. Males possess relatively bigger phalanges or finger bones.Size Male skeletons are usually bigger and heavier than female skeletons. Traditionally, men have assumed the responsibility of hunting, gathering, and working open air while women have been assigned to domestic responsibilities and childbearing. workforce, therefore, have traditionally postulate more strength and this explains the strength-related differences in the male and female skeletons.Face The nervus facialis bone structure in males and females is different on throwaway of difference in the structure of the skull. Men have more developed get at the back of the head and more noticeable brow ridges. The elevate area of men is more angular and square as compared to female chins that are pointed and more rounded.Spine Length and opposites The length of spine in women is shorter as com pared to men. The shorter spine creates an illusion of female legs being longer than that of males. Other differences include a narrower rib cage, more rounded shoulder blades, and little teeth in the female skeleton. Developmental Aspects of Male and Female Joints Overall SimilaritiesHuman male and female joints have certain common features. The first similarity is the number of joints. Since the number of bones in the bodies of males and females is same, the number of joints is also same. The number of joints is between 250 to 350.10There is no exact number due to lack of unanimity on what precisely constitutes a joint. Another prominent similarity is the types of joints. Both males and females have the same types of joints according to the mechanism for retentiveness joints together. The functions of most of the joints in males and females are similar. This point of similarity is a natural corollary to there being equal number and same type of joints.DifferencesMen have broade r shoulders and smaller waists while women have wider hips and narrower shoulders. This makes the angles of muscle alignment and brawniness attachment different in the joints of males and females.11Female joints are, on an average, more flexible and have a greater range of movement than male joints.12This is due to women having a lower center of gravity due to wider hips and greater statistical distribution of weight around the hips and thighs. On account of this significant point, the following dissimilarities are observed 1) It is easier for women to perform mobility exercises and exhibit actions such as hurdling and the fosbury female chest during high jump, while 2) men are better at events such as long jump, shot put, and hammer throw 3) the said feature also makes women less susceptible to injuries during the execution of jumps over hurdles, but on the downside, this feature lowers the efficiency of the muscle pull and makes women more prone to muscle injuries and 4) elbows and ankles in the male skeleton are smaller and have a smaller carrying angle as compared to female skeletons. This makes male elbows and ankles stronger.AnalysisPhysiology is the study of functions of different organs and organ systems in the human body, which body consists of ten organ systems. The bodys overall health is determined by how well these systems function collectively. People are the apex creatures on this planet on account of their highly developed brain, thumb, and communication. The skeletal system consisting of bones and joints is the physical conception on which other organ systems of the body are rested. It also protects different organs in the body and with the attached muscle system forms the musculoskeletal system that facilitates movement of movable body parts. Due to differences in their biological roles, bones and joints of men and women are slightly different. Men have broader shoulders while women have wider hips. This provides a lower center of gravity for women with greater joint flexibility and better coordination of movement. The same feature, however, makes women more prone to muscle injuries.